Mhadhiri - Revision Questions

Prevents Lameness: Regular trimming prevents overgrowth, reducing the risk of lameness and mobility issues.
Improves Mobility: Well-maintained hooves allow cattle to move more freely, improving grazing and feed intake efficiency.
Enhances Milk Production: Cows with healthy hooves are less stressed, leading to higher milk yields.
Reduces Infection: Proper hoof care reduces the risk of infections like foot rot, which can cause significant discomfort and affect performance.
Increases Longevity: Healthy hooves contribute to the longevity and productive life of dairy cattle.
Economic Benefits: Reducing hoof-related health issues lowers veterinary costs and improves overall profitability on the farm.

Mastitis:
- Symptoms: Swollen udder, clotted or discolored milk, fever, and a decrease in milk production.
Brucellosis:
- Symptoms: Abortion in pregnant cows, retained placenta, infertility, and joint inflammation.
Tuberculosis (TB):
- Symptoms: Chronic cough, weight loss, and reduced milk yield, often leading to respiratory distress.

Hot Iron:
- Immediate removal of horn buds.
- Minimal bleeding with a quick healing process.
- Requires proper technique to avoid excessive damage to surrounding tissue.
Chemical Caustic Soda:
- Applied as a caustic paste on horn buds to gradually burn them off.
- Slower process, taking several weeks for the buds to fall off.
- Risk of chemical burns to surrounding tissue if not applied carefully.
Comparison:
- Hot iron provides quicker results but requires skill and causes more immediate discomfort.
- Chemical caustic soda is less invasive but slower, with a risk of improper application leading to burns.

Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) Vaccine: Prevents BVD, a viral disease that affects the immune and reproductive systems.
Brucellosis Vaccine: Protects against brucellosis, which causes abortions, infertility, and reduced milk production.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) Vaccine: Prevents FMD, a highly contagious viral disease affecting cattle's hooves and mouths.
Rabies Vaccine: Prevents rabies, a fatal viral infection affecting the nervous system.
Clostridial Vaccine: Protects against clostridial diseases, including blackleg, tetanus, and enterotoxemia.
Leptospirosis Vaccine: Prevents leptospirosis, a bacterial infection that causes reproductive problems and organ damage in cattle.

Disease Prevention: Vaccines protect cattle from specific viral diseases, such as Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) and Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD).
Herd Immunity: Regular vaccination helps establish herd immunity, reducing the spread of diseases within the herd.
Economic Benefits: Vaccination minimizes productivity losses due to illness and reduces veterinary costs associated with treatment.
Health Management: Vaccination schedules are integral to a broader health management plan that includes biosecurity and proper nutrition.
Compliance: Vaccinations are often required by regulatory bodies for cattle movement, trade, and sale.
Improved Welfare: Vaccinated animals generally have better growth rates, reproduction, and milk production, contributing to overall welfare.

Restraint: Secure the animal using a headlock or chute to prevent movement during the procedure.
Sanitization: Clean the area around the horns to prevent infection during the procedure.
Application: Place the dehorning wire around the base of the horn.
Sawing: Use a back-and-forth motion with the wire to saw through the horn.
Cauterization: After removing the horn, cauterize the blood vessels to prevent excessive bleeding and promote healing.
Aftercare: Apply antiseptic and monitor the wound for any signs of infection, ensuring proper healing.

Reduced Milk Yield: Parasites stress cattle and reduce feed efficiency, leading to lower milk production.
Anemia: Blood-sucking parasites such as ticks and lice can cause anemia, leading to weakness and lower productivity.
Skin Irritations: External parasites cause skin lesions and infections, leading to discomfort and possible secondary infections.
Weight Loss: Parasites affect feed intake and digestion, resulting in weight loss and poor body condition.
Transmission of Diseases: External parasites can spread diseases such as anaplasmosis, causing further health issues.
Economic Losses: Increased veterinary costs, reduced milk production, and decreased overall performance lead to significant economic losses.

Mouth: The first step in digestion, where food is ingested and chewed, breaking it down mechanically and mixing it with saliva, which contains enzymes for initial digestion.
Esophagus: A muscular tube that transports chewed food (cud) from the mouth to the stomach.
Rumen: The largest stomach compartment where fermentation occurs, breaking down fibrous materials like cellulose through microbial digestion, producing volatile fatty acids (VFAs) that provide energy.
Reticulum: Works closely with the rumen, capturing foreign objects and helping to further break down food through additional fermentation.
Omasum: This compartment absorbs water and VFAs from the digested food, reducing the food particle size.
Abomasum: Known as the true stomach, it uses acids and enzymes (such as pepsin) to digest proteins before the digested food passes to the small intestine for nutrient absorption.

Definition: Biosecurity refers to the practices and measures taken to prevent the introduction and spread of infectious diseases within a dairy herd.
Significance:
- Prevents Disease Introduction: Reduces the risk of bringing new pathogens onto the farm.
- Reduces Disease Spread: Limits the movement and interaction of animals, reducing cross-contamination.
- Protects Animal Health: Ensures overall herd health, preventing disease outbreaks.
- Enhances Productivity: Healthy animals are more productive, leading to better milk yields and growth.
- Economic Savings: Reducing disease incidence lowers treatment costs and minimizes productivity losses.
- Regulatory Compliance: Meets local, national, and international standards for animal health and trade.

Natural Predators: Biological control involves using natural predators or organisms, such as certain fungi or bacteria, to manage internal parasites.
Effective in Reducing Parasite Load: Particularly beneficial when used in rotational grazing systems that help maintain lower parasite levels.
Environmentally Friendly: Biological control reduces the need for chemical dewormers, promoting more sustainable farming practices.
Sustainability: Provides a long-term solution for parasite management by establishing a natural balance within the environment.
Limitations: Less effective during severe infestations and may take time to establish control in a heavily parasitized herd.
Cost: Initial setup and implementation may be more costly than chemical treatments, but long-term savings and sustainability are significant.

Respiratory System:
- Nose and Nasal Passages: Filters, warms, and moistens air before it enters the lungs.
- Trachea and Bronchi: Conduct air to the lungs.
- Lungs: The site of gas exchange, where oxygen is absorbed into the blood, and carbon dioxide is expelled.
- Diaphragm: The muscle that aids in respiration by contracting to allow lung expansion.
Circulatory System:
- Heart: Pumps blood throughout the body, providing oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing waste products.
- Arteries and Veins: Transport oxygenated blood from the heart to the body and deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
- Capillaries: Microscopic blood vessels where gas and nutrient exchange occurs between blood and tissues.
- Blood: The medium that carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste throughout the body.
Differences:
- The respiratory system is responsible for gas exchange, whereas the circulatory system transports gases, nutrients, and waste.
- The respiratory system includes air passages and lungs, while the circulatory system includes the heart and blood vessels.

Proper Milking Hygiene: Clean and sanitize the udder before and after milking to prevent bacterial contamination.
Teat Dipping: Dip teats in an antiseptic solution after each milking session to prevent infection.
Dry Cow Therapy: Administer antibiotics during the dry period to treat existing infections and prevent new infections.
Regular Monitoring: Perform regular tests, such as checking somatic cell counts, to identify and address mastitis early.
Culling: Remove chronically infected cows that do not respond to treatment to prevent spreading infection.
Good Housing Conditions: Ensure cows have clean, dry bedding and proper ventilation to reduce the risk of bacterial growth and infection.

Causes:
- Caused by a highly contagious viral infection (Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus).
- Spread through direct contact with infected animals, contaminated equipment, or people.
Symptoms:
- Fever followed by the appearance of blisters in the mouth, tongue, and feet.
- Excessive salivation and drooling due to mouth lesions.
- Lameness due to blisters on the feet, leading to difficulty walking.
- Reduced milk production as the cow becomes stressed and unable to feed properly.
- Weight loss due to reduced feed intake and discomfort.

Approach Calmly: Move slowly and avoid sudden movements to prevent startling the animal and causing stress.
Use Proper Restraint Equipment: Restrain the animal using appropriate equipment such as headlocks, chutes, or halters to immobilize the animal.
Secure the Animal: Ensure the animal is securely restrained before beginning any medical procedure to prevent injury to both the animal and the handler.
Perform Examination: Conduct the necessary medical or veterinary procedures with care and precision.
Monitor Animal's Response: Continuously observe the animal for signs of distress or discomfort and adjust handling as needed.
Release Safely: Once the procedure is complete, safely and calmly release the animal to avoid panic or injury.

Disease Prevention: Good hygiene reduces the spread of infectious diseases, protecting the health of the herd.
Milk Quality: Proper sanitation ensures that milk remains free from contaminants like bacteria, dirt, or chemicals, thus maintaining high-quality milk.
Animal Health: Clean environments reduce the incidence of diseases such as mastitis, foot rot, and other infections, leading to healthier animals.
Regulatory Compliance: Dairy farms must meet hygiene standards to comply with local and international regulations for food safety.
Economic Benefits: Maintaining good hygiene reduces veterinary costs by preventing disease outbreaks and enhances farm profitability by improving milk yields.
Consumer Safety: Hygienic practices ensure that dairy products are safe for consumption, protecting public health and building consumer trust.

Ringworm:
- Symptoms:
  - Circular, scaly lesions on the skin, especially around the head and neck.
  - Hair loss in affected areas.
  - Itching and irritation.
- Treatment:
  - Antifungal ointments or sprays applied to the affected areas.
  - Isolating infected animals to prevent the spread.
  - Thorough cleaning and disinfection of housing and equipment.
Coccidiosis:
- Symptoms:
  - Diarrhea, sometimes with blood or mucus.
  - Weight loss and reduced appetite.
  - Dehydration and general weakness.
- Treatment:
  - Anticoccidial drugs administered orally or in feed.
  - Providing supportive care, such as fluids for dehydration.
  - Improving sanitation and reducing overcrowding to prevent reinfection.
Comparison:
- Causative Agents: Ringworm is caused by a fungus, while coccidiosis is caused by protozoan parasites.
- Symptoms: Ringworm affects the skin, while coccidiosis primarily affects the digestive system.
- Treatment: Ringworm requires antifungals, while coccidiosis is treated with anticoccidial drugs.

Humane Treatment: Ensuring that animals are treated with respect, avoiding unnecessary pain or discomfort during handling, milking, or medical procedures.
Adequate Housing: Providing clean, dry, and spacious living environments that meet the animals’ physical and social needs.
Proper Nutrition: Ensuring a balanced diet that meets the nutritional requirements for growth, milk production, and overall health.
Veterinary Care: Providing timely and appropriate medical attention to prevent suffering from illness or injury.
Stress Reduction: Minimizing stress by using gentle handling techniques, maintaining clean environments, and avoiding overcrowding.
Legislative Compliance: Adhering to national and international animal welfare regulations to protect the health and well-being of dairy cattle.

Ticks:
- Control: Use acaricides, maintain good pasture management, and clear brushy areas where ticks thrive.
Lice:
- Control: Use insecticidal sprays, powders, or pour-on treatments. Improve hygiene in housing areas.
Mites:
- Control: Apply acaricides, improve bedding cleanliness, and maintain proper ventilation in barns.
Flies (e.g., house flies, stable flies):
- Control: Use fly traps, insecticides, and fly repellents. Maintain proper sanitation to reduce breeding grounds.
Mosquitoes:
- Control: Eliminate standing water sources, use insect repellents, and improve drainage around the farm.
Horn Flies:
- Control: Use insecticide-treated ear tags, pour-on treatments, and fly traps to reduce fly populations.

Definition: Immunology is the study of the immune system, which protects organisms from infections, diseases, and foreign substances.
Relevance to Dairy Cattle Health:
- Disease Resistance: Understanding how the immune system fights infections helps develop strategies to strengthen cattle immunity, reducing disease incidence.
- Vaccine Development: Immunology is crucial for creating effective vaccines that protect dairy cattle from viral, bacterial, and parasitic diseases.
- Herd Health Management: Knowledge of immunology helps farmers manage herd health by implementing vaccination programs, biosecurity measures, and nutritional support.
- Reduction of Antibiotic Use: Promoting the natural immunity of cattle reduces the need for antibiotics, helping to combat antibiotic resistance.
- Economic Impact: Healthier cattle with stronger immune systems lead to fewer veterinary costs, higher milk production, and improved profitability.

Brushing: Use a stiff brush to remove dirt, mud, and loose hair from the coat. Regular brushing also stimulates circulation and helps detect skin problems early.
Washing: Clean the cow's coat with water and mild soap, particularly before milking, to maintain hygiene and reduce the risk of milk contamination.
Clipping: Trim long hair, especially around the udder and tail, to reduce the accumulation of dirt and manure.
Hoof Cleaning: Clean the hooves to remove debris and check for infections, injuries, or overgrowth that could cause lameness.
Checking for Parasites: Regularly inspect the cow’s skin and coat for ticks, lice, and other parasites, applying treatments as necessary.
Regular Inspection: Monitor the cow's overall health and cleanliness, checking for any signs of illness, injury, or skin conditions that may need veterinary attention.

Milk Feeding (Birth to 3 weeks): The calf initially relies on milk, as its rumen is not yet functional.
Introduction of Solid Feed (3-4 weeks): Small amounts of hay, grain, or calf starter feed are introduced to stimulate rumen development.
Rumen Microbial Colonization: The calf begins ingesting small amounts of solid feed, introducing beneficial microbes into the rumen that help digest fiber and produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs).
Fermentation Begins: As solid feed consumption increases, the rumen begins fermenting carbohydrates, producing VFAs that promote the growth of rumen papillae.
Weaning (6-8 weeks or later): By this stage, the rumen is sufficiently developed to process solid feeds. The calf is gradually weaned off milk as it transitions to a fully solid diet.
Significance: Proper rumen development is crucial for calves to efficiently digest fiber-rich feeds later in life, supporting optimal growth, health, and milk production as adult cows.

Signs of Success:
- Minimal Bleeding: The procedure should cause little or no excessive bleeding.
- Clean Wound: The wound should be clean with minimal swelling or inflammation.
- Quick Healing: The dehorning site should heal within a few weeks without infection or complications.
- Calm Behavior: The animal should return to normal behavior relatively quickly after the procedure.
Potential Complications:
- Excessive Bleeding: If blood vessels are not properly cauterized, bleeding may occur.
- Infection: Poor wound care or unsanitary conditions can lead to infection at the site of dehorning.
- Improper Horn Removal: If the horn is not fully removed, it may regrow improperly, leading to potential issues.
- Stress or Trauma: The animal may experience excessive stress or trauma if the procedure is not done carefully or pain management is inadequate.

Chemical Methods:
- Use of Dewormers/Anthelmintics: These drugs kill internal parasites quickly and are administered orally, topically, or via injection.
- Effectiveness: Immediate reduction in parasite load, making them highly effective in acute infestations.
- Risks: Repeated use of chemical dewormers can lead to parasite resistance over time.
Integrated Methods:
- Combining Chemical, Biological, and Management Practices: Integrated control uses rotational grazing, biological agents (such as nematode-eating fungi), and chemical treatments when necessary.
- Sustainability: Reduces reliance on chemical treatments, minimizing resistance development.
- Long-term Effectiveness: Promotes sustainable parasite control by disrupting the parasite life cycle through a combination of approaches.
Comparison:
- Chemical Methods: Fast-acting but risk resistance buildup with frequent use.
- Integrated Methods: Provide more sustainable, long-term control by reducing parasite populations and minimizing the development of drug-resistant strains.

Neonatal Calves:
- Colostrum: Within the first 24 hours, calves must consume colostrum rich in antibodies for passive immunity and essential nutrients for survival and health.
- Milk or Milk Replacer: For the first weeks of life, calves rely on whole milk or milk replacers to meet their high energy, protein, and fat requirements.
- High Protein and Energy Needs: Neonates need high levels of protein and energy for rapid growth and development. Milk or milk replacers provide essential amino acids and calories for tissue development and metabolic functions.
- Water: Adequate hydration is crucial as calves begin to adjust to solid feeds, even while still dependent on milk.
- Vitamins and Minerals: Neonates need balanced supplementation of minerals and vitamins, particularly calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D, to promote bone development.
Adult Cattle:
- Forage-Based Diet: Adult cattle consume more fibrous feeds like hay, silage, and pasture, which provide the bulk of their energy through fiber digestion in the rumen.
- Grain and Concentrates: Used primarily to supplement energy needs for lactating cows or those with high production requirements.
- Maintenance vs. Production Needs: Adult cattle have variable nutritional needs based on their stage in production (maintenance, lactation, or reproduction).
- Protein Levels: Adult cows require lower protein levels than neonatal calves, as most adults' nutritional needs are focused on maintenance, milk production, and reproduction.
Differences:
- Neonates: Have higher protein and energy needs relative to body size for growth and immune development.
- Adults: Focus on fiber-based forages for maintenance and production, with fewer protein and energy needs.

Initial Vaccination (Calves): The first BVD vaccine is administered between 6 to 8 weeks of age, typically after maternal antibodies have decreased.
Booster Vaccination: A follow-up booster shot is given 3 to 4 weeks after the initial vaccination to ensure the calf develops a robust immune response.
Pre-Breeding Vaccination (Heifers and Cows): Prior to breeding, cattle should receive BVD vaccinations to protect the herd from infection and ensure protection of the developing fetus.
Pregnancy Vaccination (Optional): In some vaccination programs, pregnant cows may receive a modified live or killed vaccine to protect the fetus, depending on farm protocols.
Annual Booster: A yearly booster shot should be given to all cows and heifers to maintain immunity.
Monitoring and Record-Keeping: Keep accurate records of each animal’s vaccination history, noting dates and vaccine types to ensure compliance with the vaccination schedule.
Biosecurity Measures: Combine vaccination with other preventive measures, such as biosecurity protocols and screening of new animals, to control BVD in the herd.

DAIRY HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT Revision Questions

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