Mhadhiri - Revision Questions

Construction Method: Non-woven fabrics are produced by bonding or interlocking fibers through mechanical (needle punching), chemical (using binders), or thermal (heat) processes. In contrast, woven fabrics are created by interlacing two sets of yarns (warp and weft) at right angles to each other.
Production Speed: Non-woven fabrics can be produced more quickly and at a lower cost compared to woven fabrics due to the simpler process of bonding fibers rather than interlacing yarns.
Material Use: Non-woven fabrics can be made from both natural fibers (like cotton or wool) and synthetic fibers (like polyester or polypropylene). Woven fabrics primarily use yarns spun from fibers.
Applications: Non-woven fabrics are widely used in medical textiles (e.g., surgical masks, gowns), hygiene products (e.g., diapers, wipes), geotextiles, and industrial applications. Woven fabrics are commonly used in apparel, upholstery, and home textiles.
Customization: The non-woven production process allows for customization of fabric properties like thickness, density, permeability, and absorbency, based on the end-use requirements.
Barrier Properties: Non-woven fabrics often provide superior barrier properties, making them ideal for filtration and hygiene products. Woven fabrics, while durable, do not typically offer the same level of filtration efficiency.
Flexibility in Thickness and Weight: Non-woven fabrics can be produced in a wide range of thicknesses and densities, from lightweight medical gauze to thick industrial mats, whereas woven fabrics are more limited by the yarn and weave structure.

- Raw Fiber Input: Carding starts with raw fibers being fed into a carding machine, which opens and cleans the fibers.
- Carding Rollers: The machine uses rollers covered with fine wire teeth to separate, clean, and disentangle the fibers, ensuring they are aligned.
- Web Formation: The aligned fibers are then drawn out into a thin, continuous web, which has a uniform structure and distribution of fibers.
- Strength Enhancement: The carded web's uniformity improves the strength, durability, and appearance of the final fabric.
- Bonding Techniques: After carding, the fiber web can be bonded using various methods, including thermal bonding (heat), needle punching (mechanical interlocking), or chemical bonding (adhesives).
- Versatile Production: Carding is a versatile and cost-effective process, used in both small- and large-scale production for making non-woven fabrics like geotextiles, medical textiles, and filters.

Fiber Preparation: The fibers are dispersed into a water-based suspension, where they are thoroughly mixed to form a homogeneous slurry.
Dispersion onto Forming Surface: The fiber slurry is then evenly distributed onto a forming screen or belt, where water drains away, leaving behind a uniform layer of fibers.
Water Drainage: As the water drains through the screen, the remaining fibers form a wet fiber mat. Proper water management is critical to ensure a uniform layer.
Bonding: Once the water is drained, the fiber mat is bonded using heat (thermal bonding) or chemical agents that fuse the fibers together.
Drying: The mat is further dried to remove any residual moisture and to finalize the bonding process, making the fabric stable and durable.
Finishing: Additional treatments, like calendering (pressing to smooth and densify the fabric), can be applied to improve the final fabric's appearance and performance.

High Absorbency: Airlaid fabrics have a loose, fluffy structure, making them highly absorbent. This is ideal for hygiene products like diapers, sanitary pads, and wipes that need to absorb and retain fluids.
Softness: The airlaid process produces soft, cushiony fabrics, making them comfortable and gentle on the skin, which is crucial for products like baby diapers and feminine hygiene items.
Uniformity: Airlaid webs are uniform in structure, with controlled basis weight and thickness, ensuring consistent performance in products such as medical pads and absorbent packaging.
Cost-Effectiveness: The airlaid process is efficient for producing high-bulk, absorbent materials at a relatively low cost, which is important for mass-market hygiene products.
Flexibility: Airlaid fabrics can be enhanced with binders, resins, or other additives to improve properties like strength, liquid retention, and softness, providing flexibility in product design.
Application in Medical Textiles: Due to their softness, absorbency, and ability to be sterilized, airlaid materials are also used in medical pads, wound dressings, and other medical absorbent products.

Spunbonding:
- Produces fabrics with high tensile strength and durability, making them suitable for applications where strength is critical, such as geotextiles, packaging, and construction materials.
- Yarns are relatively thicker, leading to fabrics that are more rigid and stable.
- Offers uniform fiber distribution and consistent thickness, ensuring predictable fabric performance.
- Ideal for large-scale production because of its cost efficiency and ability to quickly produce fabrics in high volumes.
- Exhibits excellent barrier properties, especially against liquids and particulates, making spunbond fabrics suitable for protective clothing and disposable medical products.
Meltblowing:
- Produces ultrafine fibers, typically with a smaller diameter than those from spunbonding, enhancing the material’s filtration efficiency.
- The fine fiber diameter provides a high surface area, improving filtration capacity and absorbency, which is crucial for medical masks, filters, and absorbent products.
- Lightweight and soft, meltblown fabrics are more pliable than spunbond fabrics, making them suitable for delicate applications like face masks and filtration media.
- Commonly used in high-performance filtration media, such as air and liquid filters, respirators, and medical textiles due to their superior filtration properties.
Comparison:
- Spunbonding focuses on strength and durability, while meltblowing specializes in creating fine fibers for filtration and absorbency.
- Both processes utilize continuous filament production but vary in fiber diameter, with meltblown fabrics having finer fibers and spunbond fabrics being stronger and more rigid.

Petrochemical Origin: Synthetic fibers like polyester, polypropylene, and nylon are derived from petrochemicals, which are non-renewable resources. This contributes to resource depletion and environmental concerns related to fossil fuel extraction.
Environmental Emissions: The production of synthetic fibers releases emissions and industrial waste, including greenhouse gases and chemical pollutants, which can harm air and water quality.
Non-Biodegradability: Most synthetic fibers are non-biodegradable, meaning they persist in landfills and the environment for hundreds of years, contributing to long-term pollution.
Recycling Challenges: While synthetic fibers like polyester can be recycled, recycling infrastructure is not universally available, limiting the impact of recycling on reducing waste.
Durability and Reusability: Synthetic fibers tend to be more durable than natural fibers, potentially reducing the frequency of replacement and overall resource use in certain applications, such as reusable shopping bags or durable industrial materials.
Sustainability Advances: Progress in using recycled fibers, biodegradable polymers, and bio-based alternatives to traditional synthetics (e.g., polylactic acid or PLA) is improving the environmental sustainability of non-woven fabric production.

- Desired Fabric Properties: The required properties of the final fabric, such as strength, durability, softness, or absorbency, play a major role in selecting the appropriate fiber laying method. For example, wet laying is preferred for fabrics requiring high strength and uniformity, while airlaid is used for soft, absorbent products.
- Raw Material Characteristics: The type of fiber (natural or synthetic), fiber length, and compatibility of fiber blends are critical in determining which fiber laying method to use. Short fibers may be better suited for wet or airlaid methods, while continuous filaments are ideal for spunbonding.
- Production Scale and Efficiency: The speed of production and resource efficiency (e.g., energy and water use) impact the choice. For example, spunbonding is ideal for large-scale production because it is fast and cost-effective, while needle punching might be slower but is suitable for smaller batches of specialty products.
- Fabric Structure and Thickness: Different fiber laying methods produce fabrics with varying densities, thicknesses, and structural properties. Airlaid and wet-laid techniques can create thicker, bulkier fabrics, whereas spunbonding typically results in thinner, lighter fabrics.
- Bonding Method Compatibility: The fiber laying method must be compatible with the subsequent bonding process, whether it be thermal, chemical, or mechanical (such as needle punching). For instance, thermal bonding works best with synthetic fibers like polyester or polypropylene in spunbond fabrics.
- End-Use Applications: The intended application of the non-woven fabric (e.g., medical textiles, hygiene products, industrial filters) dictates the choice of the fiber laying method, as different applications have unique performance requirements.

Material Composition: Natural fibers like cotton and wool offer excellent comfort, breathability, and absorbency, making them suitable for hygiene and medical applications. In contrast, synthetic fibers like polyester and polypropylene provide strength, durability, and moisture resistance, ideal for industrial and outdoor uses.
Fiber Length: Long fibers contribute to the strength and cohesion of the fabric, improving durability and resistance to tearing. Short fibers, while softer and more flexible, may compromise fabric strength but can enhance the surface feel of the fabric, making them suitable for wipes and disposable hygiene products.
Fiber Diameter: Fine fibers result in softer fabrics with increased filtration efficiency, as they create a tighter web structure that can trap smaller particles. Coarse fibers, on the other hand, add bulk and strength to the fabric but may reduce comfort and flexibility.
Fiber Strength: High tensile strength fibers are necessary for applications requiring durability and resistance to mechanical stress, such as automotive textiles and geotextiles. Weaker fibers are more suited for single-use or disposable products where strength is less critical.
Elasticity and Flexibility: Fibers with good elasticity and flexibility are important for fabrics that need to stretch and recover, such as those used in apparel, medical bandages, or flexible packaging.
Moisture Absorption: Fibers that absorb moisture, like cotton or rayon, are ideal for products requiring high absorbency, such as diapers, wipes, and wound dressings. Synthetic fibers, which repel moisture, are better for applications requiring water resistance, like outdoor furniture covers or protective clothing.

Melt Extrusion: The process begins by melting a polymer, usually polypropylene, and extruding it through a series of fine nozzles to form a stream of molten polymer.
Fiber Formation: As the molten polymer is extruded, a high-velocity air stream blows the fibers, causing them to stretch and thin into microfibers. The rapid cooling solidifies the fibers as they form.
Web Collection: The microfibers are deposited onto a moving conveyor belt or rotating drum in a random orientation, forming a fine, lightweight web. The fibers adhere to one another as they are collected.
Bonding: The microfibers are bonded together, usually through cooling or additional heat, to form a cohesive web. This process may also include additional mechanical or thermal bonding steps to improve the fabric's strength.
Fiber Characteristics: The result is a non-woven fabric with fine fiber diameters, which provide excellent filtration efficiency due to the large surface area and fine porosity of the web.
Applications: Meltblown fabrics are widely used in high-performance filtration products, such as face masks, respirators, air filters, and medical barriers.

Continuous Length: Filament fibers are produced as continuous strands that can be kilometers long, unlike staple fibers, which are cut to shorter lengths.
Uniformity: Filament fibers have consistent thickness and uniform properties along their entire length, which makes them suitable for applications requiring smooth and even textures.
High Tensile Strength: Filament fibers are typically stronger than staple fibers because they are continuous and unbroken, making them durable and ideal for industrial and technical applications.
Smooth Texture: The smooth surface of filament fibers enhances the drape, shine, and softness of fabrics, making them appealing for use in apparel, especially in garments like silk or polyester fabrics.
Versatility: Filament fibers can be produced from both natural sources (e.g., silk) and synthetic materials (e.g., nylon, polyester). This versatility allows them to be used in a wide range of applications, from clothing to industrial textiles.
Production Methods: Filament fibers are created using spinning techniques such as melt spinning, dry spinning, or wet spinning, depending on the material and desired fiber characteristics.

Mechanical Strength: Needle punching provides high mechanical strength, making it ideal for automotive applications that require durable, wear-resistant fabrics, such as floor carpets and trunk liners.
Thickness and Bulk: The needle-punching process can create thick, bulky fabrics, which provide cushioning and sound insulation. This makes needle-punched fabrics suitable for automotive interior components like insulation panels and acoustic barriers.
Dimensional Stability: Needle-punched fabrics offer good dimensional stability, ensuring that they maintain their shape and size under stress or during extended use, which is essential for automotive interiors.
Surface Texture: Needle punching can create unique surface textures and patterns, allowing for aesthetic customization in automotive upholstery and interior trim components.
Cost-Effectiveness: The process is relatively inexpensive compared to other textile production methods, making it a cost-effective choice for large-scale automotive applications.
Applications: Needle-punched fabrics are commonly used in automotive carpets, insulation materials, door panels, and upholstery, where mechanical strength, bulk, and durability are required.

Heat and Pressure Application: Thermal bonding involves applying heat and pressure to the fiber web, causing the fibers to melt partially and fuse together, creating a stable and cohesive structure.
Fiber Melting: The heat softens or melts the surface of thermoplastic fibers, allowing them to bond with neighboring fibers, forming a strong, interconnected web.
Enhances Strength: The process enhances the strength and durability of the fabric by creating strong bonds between the fibers, which increases the fabric’s resistance to tearing and mechanical stress.
Compatibility with Synthetic Fibers: Thermal bonding is particularly effective with synthetic fibers such as polyester, polypropylene, and nylon, which melt and fuse easily under heat.
Applications: Thermal bonding can be used to bond carded, airlaid, or spunbonded webs, making it versatile for producing fabrics used in hygiene products, medical textiles, and geotextiles.
Uniform Fabric Properties: The controlled application of heat and pressure produces fabrics with consistent thickness, strength, and performance, essential for mass-produced non-woven products.

Carding Machine: The carding process uses a machine equipped with a series of rotating drums or rollers covered in fine wire teeth.
Fiber Opening: As fibers are fed into the carding machine, they pass between the rollers, which open and separate the fibers, breaking up any clumps.
Fiber Alignment: The rollers are designed to pull the fibers parallel to each other, aligning them in the same direction to form a continuous, uniform web of fibers.
Cleaning: During carding, any remaining impurities, such as debris or short fibers, are removed, leaving cleaner, longer fibers.
Web Formation: The aligned fibers are drawn into a thin, continuous web that can be layered or directly used for bonding to produce non-woven fabrics.
Versatility: The carded web can be processed further using bonding techniques like thermal, chemical, or mechanical (needle punching) to create a wide range of non-woven materials.

Machine Inspection: Before starting production, the airlaid machine is thoroughly inspected to ensure all components are clean, lubricated, and in proper working order.
Material Preparation: The fibers to be used, along with any additives or binders, are prepared and fed into the system. Raw materials should meet the specified quality standards.
Tooling and Settings: Machine settings, including air pressure, fiber flow rate, conveyor speed, and binder application rate, are adjusted based on the desired product specifications.
Start-Up Procedure: The machine is started gradually, with initial tests conducted to ensure smooth operation and to avoid sudden fiber clumping or uneven web formation.
Monitoring: During operation, continuous monitoring of machine parameters, such as fiber distribution, web formation, and product quality, is conducted to maintain consistency.
Adjustments: Based on monitoring results, necessary adjustments are made to optimize production efficiency and maintain the required product quality.

Ensures Uniformity: Proper fiber preparation ensures that the fibers are of consistent length and quality, contributing to a uniform web formation and even bonding.
Removes Impurities: Cleaning and preparing the fibers removes impurities such as dirt, oils, and short fibers, preventing defects in the final fabric.
Enhances Fiber Blending: Fiber preparation allows for the even blending of different types of fibers (e.g., natural and synthetic), ensuring that the final fabric has the desired balance of properties like strength, absorbency, or softness.
Consistency in Performance: Well-prepared fibers lead to more consistent product performance, as each fiber behaves predictably during the laying and bonding processes.
Optimizes Processing Efficiency: Properly prepared fibers reduce the likelihood of clumping or uneven web formation, improving the efficiency of subsequent production stages such as bonding.
Improves Fabric Quality: High-quality fiber preparation results in a smoother, stronger, and more uniform fabric, enhancing the final product’s appearance, durability, and functionality.

Here are the expanded and corrected answers for the remaining questions:

Explain how carding achieves fiber alignment.

Carding Machine: The carding process uses a machine equipped with a series of rotating drums or rollers covered in fine wire teeth.
Fiber Opening: As fibers are fed into the carding machine, they pass between the rollers, which open and separate the fibers, breaking up any clumps.
Fiber Alignment: The rollers are designed to pull the fibers parallel to each other, aligning them in the same direction to form a continuous, uniform web of fibers.
Cleaning: During carding, any remaining impurities, such as debris or short fibers, are removed, leaving cleaner, longer fibers.
Web Formation: The aligned fibers are drawn into a thin, continuous web that can be layered or directly used for bonding to produce non-woven fabrics.
Versatility: The carded web can be processed further using bonding techniques like thermal, chemical, or mechanical (needle punching) to create a wide range of non-woven materials.

Outline the operational steps for setting up an airlaid machine.

Machine Inspection: Before starting production, the airlaid machine is thoroughly inspected to ensure all components are clean, lubricated, and in proper working order.
Material Preparation: The fibers to be used, along with any additives or binders, are prepared and fed into the system. Raw materials should meet the specified quality standards.
Tooling and Settings: Machine settings, including air pressure, fiber flow rate, conveyor speed, and binder application rate, are adjusted based on the desired product specifications.
Start-Up Procedure: The machine is started gradually, with initial tests conducted to ensure smooth operation and to avoid sudden fiber clumping or uneven web formation.
Monitoring: During operation, continuous monitoring of machine parameters, such as fiber distribution, web formation, and product quality, is conducted to maintain consistency.
Adjustments: Based on monitoring results, necessary adjustments are made to optimize production efficiency and maintain the required product quality.

Discuss the importance of fiber preparation in producing high-quality non-woven fabrics.

Ensures Uniformity: Proper fiber preparation ensures that the fibers are of consistent length and quality, contributing to a uniform web formation and even bonding.
Removes Impurities: Cleaning and preparing the fibers removes impurities such as dirt, oils, and short fibers, preventing defects in the final fabric.
Enhances Fiber Blending: Fiber preparation allows for the even blending of different types of fibers (e.g., natural and synthetic), ensuring that the final fabric has the desired balance of properties like strength, absorbency, or softness.
Consistency in Performance: Well-prepared fibers lead to more consistent product performance, as each fiber behaves predictably during the laying and bonding processes.
Optimizes Processing Efficiency: Properly prepared fibers reduce the likelihood of clumping or uneven web formation, improving the efficiency of subsequent production stages such as bonding.
Improves Fabric Quality: High-quality fiber preparation results in a smoother, stronger, and more uniform fabric, enhancing the final product’s appearance, durability, and functionality.

Compare the use of natural versus synthetic fibers in non-woven textiles.

Natural Fibers:
- Comfort and Softness: Natural fibers like cotton and wool are known for their softness and breathability, making them ideal for applications such as medical textiles and hygiene products.
- Moisture Absorption: Natural fibers have excellent moisture absorption properties, making them suitable for products like diapers, wipes, and sanitary pads.
- Biodegradability: Natural fibers are biodegradable and environmentally friendly, making them a more sustainable option, particularly for disposable products.
Synthetic Fibers:
- Strength and Durability: Synthetic fibers such as polyester and polypropylene offer superior strength and durability, making them suitable for industrial and technical applications.
- Moisture Resistance: Unlike natural fibers, synthetic fibers repel moisture, making them ideal for products like geotextiles, outdoor fabrics, and protective clothing.
- Versatility: Synthetic fibers can be engineered to have specific performance characteristics, such as flame retardancy, UV resistance, or high tensile strength, for specialized applications.
Blended Fibers: Combining natural and synthetic fibers allows manufacturers to leverage the best properties of each, such as combining cotton’s comfort with polyester’s durability, resulting in products that are both functional and comfortable.
Environmental Concerns: While natural fibers are more sustainable, synthetic fibers are non-biodegradable and contribute to long-term pollution. However, advances in recycling and bio-based synthetic fibers are addressing some of these concerns.
Application-Specific Choice: The choice of fiber depends on the intended application, with natural fibers being preferred for comfort-oriented uses and synthetic fibers for strength and performance-driven products.

Strong and Uniform Webs: The wet laying process produces highly uniform webs with consistent fiber distribution, resulting in industrial wipes that have reliable strength and durability.
High Tensile Strength: Wet-laid non-woven fabrics have excellent tensile strength, which is essential for wipes used in heavy-duty cleaning or industrial environments.
Additive Incorporation: The process allows for the easy incorporation of additives, such as binders or anti-bacterial agents, which enhance the performance of the wipes for specific applications.
Efficient Large-Scale Production: Wet laying is well-suited for high-volume production, making it a cost-effective method for manufacturing large quantities of industrial wipes.
Controlled Absorbency: Wet-laid wipes can be engineered to have precise levels of absorbency, making them effective for cleaning up spills, absorbing liquids, or wiping down surfaces in industrial settings.
Consistent Product Quality: Wet laying ensures consistent quality, which is essential for industrial wipes that must meet strict performance and reliability standards.

Extrusion Unit: The machine begins with an extrusion unit where polymer granules, such as polypropylene or polyester, are melted and prepared for spinning.
Spinnerets: The molten polymer is extruded through spinnerets, which are fine nozzles that form the polymer into continuous filaments or fibers.
Cooling System: Once extruded, the filaments are cooled and solidified by air or water jets to ensure they retain their structural integrity.
Conveyor Belt: The continuous filaments are laid down on a moving conveyor belt in a random or specific pattern, forming a web of fibers.
Bonding Unit: The web is passed through a bonding unit where heat and pressure are applied to fuse the fibers together, creating a cohesive and stable fabric.
Control Panel: The entire process is controlled via a panel where operators can adjust machine settings, such as temperature, extrusion speed, and conveyor speed, to ensure the desired fabric properties are achieved.

High Tensile Strength: Continuous filament fibers are much stronger than staple fibers due to their unbroken length, making them durable and ideal for fabrics that need to withstand wear and tear.
Uniformity: Filament fibers have uniform properties along their length, resulting in smoother, more consistent fabrics that are aesthetically appealing and comfortable to wear.
Smooth Texture: Filament fibers, particularly synthetic ones like polyester and nylon, have a smooth, silky texture, making them ideal for creating soft, drapable garments such as dresses, blouses, and activewear.
Blending Versatility: Continuous filament fibers can be blended with other natural or synthetic fibers to enhance specific characteristics, such as strength, stretch, or breathability, depending on the fabric’s intended use.
Drape and Flexibility: Continuous filament fibers offer excellent drape and flexibility, making them suitable for a wide range of apparel applications, from flowing formalwear to lightweight activewear.
Low Pilling: Unlike staple fibers, which can lead to fabric pilling, continuous filament fibers are less prone to breakage and pilling, ensuring garments remain smooth and retain their appearance over time.

Thermal Bonding:
- Uses heat and pressure to partially melt thermoplastic fibers, causing them to fuse together and form a stable fabric.
- Suitable for a wide range of synthetic fibers, such as polypropylene, polyester, and nylon, which melt when exposed to heat.
- Produces strong, durable fabrics with consistent performance, often used in hygiene products, medical textiles, and geotextiles.
- Cost-effective and efficient, as it eliminates the need for chemical additives or adhesives.
Chemical Bonding:
- Involves the application of adhesives or chemical binders to hold fibers together, offering flexibility in the types of fibers that can be bonded, including non-thermoplastic fibers.
- Allows for customization of fabric properties by adjusting the type and amount of binder used, making it suitable for applications requiring specific chemical or moisture resistance.
- Often more expensive than thermal bonding due to the cost of binders and additional processing steps.
- Used for specialty applications, such as filtration media, wipes, and technical textiles, where specific performance characteristics are required.

Needle Punching: A mechanical bonding process in which barbed needles repeatedly punch through layers of fibers, entangling them and creating a dense, cohesive fabric.
Fiber Interlocking: The barbed needles pull fibers from one layer into another, creating a strong interlocking structure that holds the fibers together without the need for adhesives or thermal bonding.
Fabric Thickness: Needle-punched fabrics can be thick and bulky, making them ideal for applications requiring cushioning or insulation.
Applications: Needle punching is commonly used in producing automotive carpets, insulation materials, geotextiles, and filtration products due to its strength, durability, and ability to create thick fabrics.
Surface Texture: The process can also create unique surface textures and patterns, enhancing the aesthetic appeal of the fabric.
Dimensional Stability: Needle-punched fabrics provide excellent dimensional stability, making them suitable for heavy-duty applications where durability is essential.

Fine Fiber Diameters: Meltblown fabrics are made from ultrafine fibers, which increase the surface area of the fabric and improve its filtration efficiency by trapping smaller particles.
Improved Filtration: Fine fibers enhance the fabric’s ability to capture airborne particles, making meltblown fabrics ideal for applications like face masks, respirators, and air or liquid filters.
Softness and Flexibility: Smaller fiber diameters contribute to the softness and flexibility of the fabric, making it comfortable to wear in medical textiles like surgical masks or gowns.
Increased Absorbency: Fine fibers have a higher surface area, which improves the fabric’s absorbency, making it suitable for products like absorbent pads and wipes.
Production Costs: While smaller fiber diameters improve fabric performance, producing ultrafine fibers requires more advanced and expensive equipment, leading to higher production costs.
Critical for Filtration Applications: Fiber diameter is a critical factor in determining the filtration efficiency of meltblown fabrics, making it an essential consideration for high-filtration applications like N95 masks.

Fiber Preparation: Fibers are mixed into a water-based suspension, ensuring they are evenly dispersed throughout the liquid to create a homogenous mixture.
Dispersion: The fiber suspension is evenly distributed onto a forming screen or conveyor belt, where the water drains away, leaving behind a thin mat of fibers.
Water Drainage: Excess water is drained through the screen, leaving the fibers to settle and form a wet fiber mat on the forming surface.
Bonding: The wet fiber mat is bonded by applying heat or chemicals, which helps solidify the structure of the fibers into a stable web.
Drying: Additional drying processes are used to remove any remaining moisture, ensuring the web is fully bonded and ready for further processing or use.
Finishing: The finished web may undergo further treatments such as calendering (pressing to smooth the fabric) or coating to enhance the fabric’s properties, such as strength, durability, or water resistance.

NON-WOVEN FABRICS Revision Questions

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