Mhadhiri - Revision Questions

An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to each device connected to a network, enabling communication over the Internet or local networks.
IPv4 addresses consist of four sets of numbers (octets) separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.1), while IPv6 addresses use hexadecimal numbers separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::7334).

DNS translates human-friendly domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into corresponding IP addresses that computers use to identify websites and resources.
It functions like a phone book for the Internet, mapping readable domain names to numerical IP addresses, making it easier for users to navigate the web.
DNS eliminates the need for users to remember complex IP addresses, simplifying access to websites.
It operates through a hierarchical, distributed database managed by DNS servers located around the world, ensuring redundancy and scalability.
The key components of DNS include DNS servers (which store domain information), DNS resolvers (which resolve domain queries), and authoritative DNS servers (which provide the definitive IP address for a domain).
Efficient DNS lookup improves Internet access speed and enhances user experience by reducing the time required to load websites.

Data is broken into smaller units called packets to be transmitted across networks.
Each packet contains a portion of the data, the destination IP address, and sequencing information to allow proper reassembly.
Packets are transmitted individually from the source device to the destination, potentially traveling via different routes.
Routers direct packets through the most efficient paths, adjusting based on current network traffic conditions.
At the destination, packets are reassembled into the original data using sequencing information.
Error checking mechanisms like checksums ensure all packets are received and reassembled correctly, with missing or corrupted packets retransmitted as needed.

High-speed transmission: Fiber-optic cables transmit data at significantly faster speeds compared to traditional copper cables like DSL or coaxial cable.
Higher bandwidth: Fiber supports larger amounts of data transfer, making it ideal for high-demand activities like video streaming, gaming, and large file transfers.
Low latency: Fiber offers low latency, providing near-instantaneous data transmission, which is critical for real-time applications like video conferencing.
Greater reliability: Fiber is immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI), ensuring a more stable connection.
Longer distance transmission: Fiber-optic signals can travel longer distances without degradation compared to copper cables.
Ideal for high-demand environments: Fiber-optic connections are suitable for homes and businesses requiring high-speed, consistent connectivity for multiple users and devices.

Access to educational resources: The Internet provides a vast array of free and paid learning materials, including articles, videos, eBooks, and tutorials.
Facilitates online learning: Remote learning is made possible through platforms offering online courses, virtual classrooms, webinars, and other digital learning environments.
Enhances collaboration: Internet access allows students and teachers to communicate and collaborate through video conferencing, discussion boards, and shared documents.
Flexible learning schedules: Online education enables students to learn at their own pace and access materials whenever and wherever convenient.
Bridges geographical gaps: Remote students, particularly those in rural or underserved areas, can access quality education without the need for physical proximity to educational institutions.
Supports self-paced learning: Students can access a wide range of subjects and learn independently, exploring areas of interest in more depth at their own pace.

DSL (Digital Subscriber Line):
- Uses existing telephone lines to deliver Internet service, making it widely available in many areas, especially rural regions.
- Typically offers lower speeds compared to cable, especially for download speeds.
- Speed decreases with distance from the provider’s central office, impacting performance for users farther away.
- More consistent speeds due to dedicated lines for each subscriber, meaning less susceptibility to network congestion.
Cable:
- Uses coaxial cables, originally designed for television service, to deliver high-speed Internet.
- Generally provides higher download speeds than DSL, making it better suited for high-demand activities like streaming and gaming.
- Cable speeds can fluctuate due to network congestion, as bandwidth is shared among users in the same geographical area.
- Cable service may not be as widely available as DSL in rural or remote areas where cable infrastructure isn’t present.

Monitors network traffic: Firewalls inspect incoming and outgoing traffic, blocking unauthorized access and potential threats based on predefined security rules.
Blocks unauthorized access: By acting as a gatekeeper, firewalls prevent unauthorized users or malicious programs from accessing the network.
Protection against external threats: Firewalls defend networks from cyber threats such as hackers, malware, and denial-of-service (DoS) attacks.
Hardware and software-based options: Firewalls can be standalone hardware devices, software applications, or a combination of both for comprehensive protection.
Essential for data security: Firewalls are crucial in protecting sensitive data, ensuring privacy, and preventing breaches.
Part of a multi-layered defense: While firewalls are important, they work best when integrated with other security measures like antivirus software and encryption for a comprehensive defense.

Directs data packets: The router directs data packets between devices on the home network and the Internet, ensuring they reach their correct destinations.
Assigns IP addresses via DHCP: The router assigns unique IP addresses to each device on the network using DHCP, enabling proper communication.
Facilitates wired and wireless connections: Routers manage both wired (Ethernet) and wireless (Wi-Fi) connections, allowing devices to connect to the network and the Internet.
Enables device communication: Routers allow devices within the network (e.g., printers, smartphones, laptops) to communicate and share resources, such as files or printers.
Implements security features: Routers often include features like Network Address Translation (NAT) and built-in firewalls, adding layers of security to the network.
Prioritizes traffic using QoS settings: Routers can prioritize traffic for specific devices or applications (e.g., video streaming or gaming) using Quality of Service (QoS) settings to ensure optimal performance.

Modulates digital data into analog signals: A modem converts digital data from a computer or network into analog signals that can be transmitted over telephone or cable lines.
Demodulates analog signals back into digital data: When data is received, the modem converts the incoming analog signals back into digital data for use by computers and other devices.
Acts as a bridge between the local network and the ISP: The modem connects the home or office network to the Internet Service Provider (ISP), enabling Internet access.
Can be integrated with a router: Some modems include built-in router functions, combining both devices into a single unit for convenience.
Essential for establishing an Internet connection: Without a modem, devices cannot communicate with the ISP to access the Internet.
Available in different types: Modems come in various types such as DSL modems, cable modems, and fiber-optic modems, depending on the Internet service type.

Modem: Converts digital signals to analog (and vice versa) to communicate with the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Router: Directs data traffic between devices in the local network and connects multiple devices to the modem, managing both wired and wireless connections.
Network Interface Card (NIC): Allows devices, like computers, to connect to the network either through wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) connections.
Ethernet Cables: Provide a wired connection between the modem, router, and other devices, ensuring a stable and faster connection compared to wireless.
Wi-Fi Adapter: Enables devices without built-in Wi-Fi capabilities to connect to the wireless network by providing wireless access.
Switch (optional): Expands the number of available wired connections in a network, allowing more devices to be connected via Ethernet.

Enhanced global communication: The Internet enables real-time communication and collaboration between individuals across the world, fostering greater connectivity.
Access to information: The Internet democratizes knowledge, providing people with access to a wealth of information, educational resources, and research materials.
Remote work opportunities: Increased Internet access has created more opportunities for telecommuting and remote work, allowing people to work from virtually anywhere.
Digital divide: While the Internet brings benefits, it can also widen the gap between those with reliable Internet access and those without, leading to unequal access to resources and opportunities.
Impact on mental health: Excessive Internet use can lead to issues such as social isolation, Internet addiction, cyberbullying, and other mental health challenges.
Shifts in social behavior: The rise of social media and online communication has changed how people interact, with more reliance on virtual connections and less face-to-face interaction.

Protects data from unauthorized access: Encryption ensures that data sent over the Internet is scrambled and unreadable to unauthorized individuals or systems, providing a layer of security.
Ensures privacy and confidentiality: Encryption keeps sensitive information (such as passwords, financial details, and personal data) secure, maintaining user privacy.
Critical for secure online transactions: Online banking, e-commerce, and financial transactions rely on encryption to protect users’ data and prevent financial fraud.
Prevents data breaches: Encryption helps guard against data theft and breaches by ensuring that even if data is intercepted, it cannot be understood without the proper decryption key.
Builds trust in digital services: Websites that use encryption (e.g., HTTPS) are trusted by users, who feel more secure when sharing personal information.
Compliance with regulations: Encryption is often required to comply with data protection laws and regulations (e.g., GDPR) that mandate the secure handling of personal data.

Choose a location for the router: Select a central location in the home to ensure optimal Wi-Fi coverage and minimal interference.
Connect the modem to the router: Use an Ethernet cable to connect the modem (which provides the Internet) to the router (which distributes the Internet to devices).
Power on the modem and router: Plug in both devices and turn them on. Wait for the modem to establish an Internet connection and the router to boot up.
Access the router’s setup page: Open a web browser and enter the router’s default IP address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) to access the router’s configuration page.
Configure wireless settings: Set the SSID (the network name) and a strong password to secure the network. Choose a secure encryption type (e.g., WPA2 or WPA3).
Connect devices to the network: On each device, search for available Wi-Fi networks, select your SSID, and enter the password to connect.

Advantages:
- Available in remote areas: Satellite Internet can provide service in rural and isolated areas where other types of Internet connections (such as fiber or cable) are not feasible.
- Broadband speeds: Offers broadband speeds that are suitable for basic Internet activities, such as web browsing, email, and video streaming.
- Easy installation: Satellite Internet requires minimal infrastructure, needing only a satellite dish and modem, making it easy to set up in remote locations.
Disadvantages:
- High latency: Satellite Internet tends to have higher latency due to the long distance that signals must travel between the satellite and the ground, affecting real-time applications like gaming and video calls.
- Weather sensitivity: Weather conditions such as heavy rain, storms, or snow can interfere with satellite signals, causing disruptions in service quality and reliability.
- Higher costs: Satellite Internet plans often come with higher installation fees and monthly service costs compared to other types of Internet connections.
- Limited bandwidth: Satellite Internet services often have data caps, limiting the amount of data that can be used each month, which can be a disadvantage for users who require heavy data usage.

Identifies devices on a network: An IP address uniquely identifies each device connected to a network, allowing them to send and receive data correctly.
Routing of data packets: IP addresses enable routers to direct data packets to the appropriate destination by determining the exact device that the data is meant for.
Establishes Internet connections: Without an IP address, a device cannot establish a connection to the Internet, as it wouldn’t be recognized by other systems.
Geolocation: IP addresses can provide general information about a device’s physical location, such as the country, region, or city where it is located.
Security and access control: IP addresses play a role in controlling network access, allowing firewalls, VPNs, and other security systems to filter traffic and block unauthorized users.
Enables Internet services: IP addresses are essential for the operation of Internet protocols like TCP/IP, DNS, and HTTP, which facilitate web browsing, file transfers, and other online services.

Expand broadband infrastructure: Invest in building and upgrading Internet infrastructure, such as fiber-optic networks, in rural and low-income areas to improve access.
Affordable Internet plans: Offer low-cost Internet service plans for low-income households to make Internet access more affordable for everyone.
Digital literacy programs: Increase funding for education initiatives aimed at teaching digital skills and Internet literacy, enabling people to make better use of online resources.
Government policies: Implement policies that promote universal Internet access, including subsidies, tax incentives, or grants for ISPs that extend service to underserved areas.
Public-private partnerships: Encourage collaboration between government, private companies, and non-profit organizations to bring Internet connectivity to remote areas.
Subsidies for devices: Provide financial support or incentives for individuals and families to purchase Internet-enabled devices like computers, tablets, and smartphones.

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):
- Used for transmitting web pages and other data over the Internet.
- Does not provide encryption, making data vulnerable to interception and attacks such as man-in-the-middle (MITM).
- Suitable for non-sensitive data transmission, such as basic information pages or websites without user login or transactions.
HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure):
- Encrypts data using SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) or TLS (Transport Layer Security), ensuring that sensitive data is transmitted securely.
- Provides secure communication between a user's browser and a website, protecting the privacy and integrity of the transmitted data.
- Essential for secure transactions, such as online banking, e-commerce, and personal login information.
Main differences:
- HTTPS uses encryption to protect data, while HTTP does not.
- HTTPS is necessary for websites handling sensitive information (e.g., payment processing), while HTTP is more suitable for non-sensitive content.

Definition:
- Phishing is a type of cyber attack where a malicious actor disguises themselves as a trustworthy entity (such as a legitimate company or website) in order to deceive individuals into providing sensitive information, such as login credentials, credit card numbers, or personal identification.
Protection Methods:
- Be cautious of unsolicited emails or messages: Avoid clicking on links or downloading attachments from unfamiliar sources.
- Verify sender information: Check the sender’s email address for authenticity, as phishing emails often use slight variations of legitimate addresses.
- Use multi-factor authentication (MFA): Adding an extra layer of security makes it harder for attackers to access accounts, even if credentials are stolen.
- Educate yourself and others: Learn about common phishing tactics and how to recognize them (e.g., fake links, urgency language).
- Install anti-phishing software: Use antivirus and anti-phishing software to detect and block phishing attempts.
- Examine URLs: Hover over links to ensure they lead to legitimate websites before clicking.

Concept:
- Cloud computing refers to the delivery of computing services such as storage, servers, databases, networking, software, and analytics over the Internet ("the cloud"). It allows businesses to use computing resources on demand without having to manage physical infrastructure.
Benefits:
- Scalability: Businesses can easily scale their resources up or down based on demand, paying only for what they use.
- Cost-efficiency: Reduces capital expenses by eliminating the need for maintaining expensive hardware and software on-site.
- Accessibility: Employees can access applications and data from anywhere, supporting remote work and global collaboration.
- Collaboration: Cloud-based tools make it easy for teams to work together in real time, sharing files and collaborating on projects regardless of location.
- Disaster recovery: Cloud providers offer robust backup and disaster recovery options, ensuring data is safe even in the event of system failure.
- Flexibility: Allows businesses to quickly deploy and manage new applications and services without the need for extensive setup or IT infrastructure.

Consent: Businesses must obtain informed consent from users before collecting, storing, or using their personal data. Users should be aware of how their data is being collected and for what purposes.
Transparency: Companies should clearly communicate their data collection practices, explaining how data is used, stored, shared, and protected.
Security: Businesses are responsible for implementing robust security measures to protect personal data from breaches, theft, or unauthorized access.
Accountability: Organizations must be held accountable for how they handle and protect user data, taking responsibility for any breaches or misuse.
User Rights: Respect for users' rights to access, correct, or delete their personal data should be upheld in accordance with data protection laws like GDPR.
Compliance: Companies must comply with local, national, and international data protection regulations, ensuring they meet the necessary legal requirements for data privacy.

Access Provision: ISPs (Internet Service Providers) are responsible for connecting consumers to the Internet through various technologies such as DSL, cable, fiber-optic, and satellite.
Infrastructure Maintenance: ISPs maintain, upgrade, and expand the physical infrastructure (e.g., cables, servers, routers) needed to deliver reliable Internet service to homes and businesses.
Customer Support: ISPs provide technical support and troubleshooting assistance to help consumers resolve connectivity issues, setup problems, and service disruptions.
Service Plans: ISPs offer a variety of Internet subscription plans with different speeds, data limits, and pricing to cater to different customer needs.
Network Security: ISPs implement measures such as firewalls, malware detection, and encryption to protect users from cyber threats.
Regulation Compliance: ISPs must comply with government regulations and industry standards regarding data usage, net neutrality, and privacy protections.

Isolation: Excessive Internet use can lead to social isolation, as individuals may prioritize online interactions over in-person relationships.
Anxiety and Depression: Overreliance on online activities, including social media, can contribute to feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, and depression due to constant comparison and exposure to negative content.
Sleep Disruption: Prolonged screen time, especially before bed, can disrupt sleep patterns and contribute to insomnia, affecting overall mental and physical health.
Productivity Loss: Internet addiction can reduce focus and productivity, as individuals spend excessive time on social media, gaming, or other online distractions rather than on important tasks.
Cyberbullying: Increased exposure to online harassment, trolling, or cyberbullying can negatively impact self-esteem and mental well-being, especially among younger users.
Escapism: Some individuals use the Internet as an escape from real-life problems, which can lead to neglect of responsibilities and exacerbate underlying mental health issues.

Encryption: VPNs encrypt data, making it unreadable to anyone who intercepts it, ensuring secure communication over public networks like Wi-Fi in cafes or airports.
Privacy: VPNs mask users' IP addresses, protecting their identity and location, thus preventing websites or trackers from monitoring their online activity.
Access Control: VPNs provide secure remote access to corporate networks, allowing employees to safely work from home or while traveling without compromising security.
Bypass Censorship: VPNs enable users to bypass geographical restrictions and censorship by routing their traffic through servers in other locations, allowing access to blocked websites or content.
Security: VPNs add an extra layer of security for sensitive activities, such as online banking or handling confidential data, by preventing potential eavesdroppers from accessing the information.
Anonymity: By routing traffic through a VPN server, users enhance their anonymity, reducing the chances of their activities being traced back to them.

Social Media:
- Provides interactive platforms where users can create, share, and engage with content in real-time.
- Allows for immediate updates and user-generated content, fostering a more participatory media environment.
- Social media platforms can reach a global audience instantly and allow users to communicate and collaborate from anywhere.
- The rapid spread of information on social media also leads to the spread of misinformation and fake news, as content is often shared without verification.
- Social media greatly influences public opinion, social movements, and trends, providing a powerful platform for marketing and activism.
- Personalized content is delivered to users based on their preferences, using targeted advertising techniques that can affect consumer behavior.
Traditional Media:
- Includes established forms like newspapers, television, and radio, which deliver professionally produced and verified information.
- In traditional media, communication is one-way, with little to no interaction between the producers of content and the audience.
- It has a more limited reach compared to social media but is often considered more trustworthy due to editorial oversight.
- Traditional media also influences public opinion through well-researched journalism and regulated content.
- Advertising in traditional media follows fixed formats, such as TV commercials or print ads, which may not be as personalized or targeted as social media ads.

User enters a URL: When a user types a URL (e.g., www.example.com) into their web browser, the browser needs to translate the domain name into an IP address.
DNS resolver query: The browser sends a request to a DNS resolver (usually provided by the ISP) to find the IP address associated with the domain name.
Cache check: The DNS resolver first checks its cache to see if it already has the IP address stored from a previous lookup. If found, it returns the IP address to the browser.
Query to root DNS server: If the IP address is not in the resolver’s cache, the resolver sends a query to the root DNS server, which directs the resolver to the appropriate Top-Level Domain (TLD) DNS server (e.g., .com, .org).
TLD server response: The TLD server provides the resolver with the IP address of the authoritative DNS server responsible for the specific domain name.
Authoritative DNS server: The authoritative DNS server returns the actual IP address of the domain (e.g., www.example.com) to the resolver.
Browser requests the website: The DNS resolver sends the IP address back to the browser, which then uses it to send a request to the web server hosting the website.

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